History of Somalia

Humans have inhabited Somalia since the Paleolithic period. Northern Somalia has cave paintings dating to 9000 BC. The Laas Geel complex is the most famous of these and contains some of Africa’s earliest rock art. While these paintings carry inscriptions, archeologists have not been able to decipher their meaning. Doian and Hargeisan cultures thrived here during the Stone Age.
There are cemeteries in Somalia that date to the 4th millennium BC and show the area’s ancient burial customs. The Jalelo site in northern Somalia is important to the study of Paleolithic times.

Antiquity and the Classical Era

Ancient tombs, ruins, and walls such as the Wargaade Wall are evidence of a sophisticated civilization that was once present in the Somali peninsula. This civilization had an ancient writing system that is still not deciphered. This and the fact that they traded with the Ancient Egyptians and Greeks supports the view that this was the ancient Kingdom of Punt.
Camels were domesticated between the third millennium and the second millennium BC. From Somalia, they spread to Ancient Egypt and North Africa. A lucrative trade network developed between the states of Opone, Mossylon, Mundus, Malao, and Tabae. This connected with traders from Egypt, Greece, Phoenicia, Saba, Persia, Nabataea, and Rome.
After Rome conquered the Nabataean Empire, Arab and Somali merchants stopped Indian ships from trading in the Arabian Peninsula. This has done to hide the lucrative trade in the Red Sea.
Indians brought cinnamon from the Far East to Somalia. The Romans believed the cinnamon came from Somalia. The spice was then exported to North Africa at much higher prices.

Birth of Islam and the Middle Ages

Early Muslims fled persecution to the port city of Zeila in Somalia, which was controlled by the Axumite Emperor. Those given protection settled in the Horn of Africa and promoted the religion.
When the Muslims defeated the Quraysh in the 7th century, there was a significant effect on Somalia’s traders because their trading partners were Muslim and controlled the routes. Commerce allowed the religion to spread through the Somali population in the coastal cities. Arabs fled to Somalia due to instability in their region, further growing Islam’s popularity.
On the East African Coast, Mogadishu became Islam’s center. Adal in northern Somalia was becoming a trading community as well.
From 1150 to 1259, Islam made an important turn in Somalia’s history. Islam flourished with the Berbers and the Adalites, who prospered in the region. The Adalites came under the Kingdom of Ifat’s influence.
Zeila was the Ifat capital and was situated in northern Somalia. From here, the Ifat army conquered the Kingdom of Shoa in 1270. This started a fight for supremacy between Solomonids, who were primarily Christian, and Ifatites, who were Muslim. This led to several wars and an eventual Solomonic victory. After the popular Ifat ruler Sultan Sa’ad ad-Din II, his family was given protection in the Kingdom of Yemen. His sons plotted their revenge on the Solomids.
The Republics of Merca, Mogadishu, Hobyo, and Barawa flourished during the Age of the Ajuuraans. There was lucrative foreign trade between the area and India, Arabia, Venetia, Egypt, Persia, Portugal, and China.
Duarte Barbosa noted in the 1500s that ships from kingdoms in modern India sailed to Mogadishu with spices and clothes and received gold, ivory, and wax in return. The area was also the center of Toob Benadir, a thriving weaving industry.
The Somali region established trade relations with Malacca in the 15th century. Exotic animals were exported to the Ming Empire in China, which influenced both cultures and languages. Hindu merchants used the ports of the area as well in order to trade without interference from countries like Portugal.

Early Modern Era and the Scramble for Africa

The Adal and Ajuuraan successor states grew in the area and included the Gerad, Bari, and Gobroon Dynasties. They continued the trade and castle-building of the previous empires.
The Gobroon Dynasty’s Golden age was started by Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim. During the Bardheere Jihad, his army came out victorious and restored regional stability.
His son, Ahmed Yusuf succeeded him and became an important figure in the 1800s. The Gerad Dynasty traded in northern Somalia with Yemen and Persia. Bari and Gerad sultans built castles, palaces, and fortresses.
After the Berlin conference in the late 1800s, the powers of Europe began the scramble for Africa. Dervish leader Muhammad Abdullah Hassan rallied support from across the Horn of Africa to resist the colonialists. Hassan decreed that Somalis not accepting the goal of unity would be considered as gaal or kafir. Turkey, Sudan, and other Arabic countries provided him with weapons.
Hassan Dervish state was built on the Salihiya brotherhood model and was essentially military. There were centralization and rigid hierarchy. He first fought the British soldiers stationed in the area and repulsed four British expeditions. Hassan established relations with the Germans and Ottomans. The Dervish nation collapsed in 1920 after British aerial bombing and its territories became a protectorate.
Italy changed its strategy with the dawn of fascism in the 1920s. The area known as Italian Somaliland changed with the arrival of Governor Cesare Maria De Vecchi in 1923. The Italians directly ruled the Benadir territory and attacked Abyssinia in modern-day Ethiopia in 1935. The League of Nations condemned the attack but did nothing to stop it. In 1940, Italian troops invaded British Somaliland from Ethiopia and took Berbera from the British in less than two weeks. In 1941, the British launched a force, along with troops from African countries, from Kenya to take back the territories and liberate Italian colonies. British Somaliland was retaken and Italian Somaliland was captured.

The State of Somalia

After World War II, Britain retained control of British and Italian Somaliland despite Somali help to the allies. In 1949, the U.N. allowed Italy a trusteeship of Italian Somaliland. This was granted on the condition that the country would be granted independence within 10 years. This condition was proposed by the Somali Youth League (SYL), Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS), and the Somali National League (SNL). British retained its portion of Somaliland until 1960 as a protectorate.
The U.N. trusteeship allowed the Somalis to gain political experience. British Somaliland did not have the advantages of the Italian portion. Britain attempted to make up for past neglect but the area stagnated. This disparity would cause problems when the two parts became integrated.
In 1948, Britain gave an important Somali grazing area to Ethiopia based on an 1897 treaty. Despite the British including a provision that Somali nomads could retain autonomy, Ethiopia claimed sovereignty over them. In response, Britain attempted to purchase the area back in 1956.
Djibouti held a referendum in 1958 to decide whether or not to join Somalia or remain with France. The vote ended up in favor of continued French association. Those voting no were Somalis seeking a united Somalia. In 1977, Djibouti gained its independence.
On June 26, 1960, British Somaliland became independent and Italian Somaliland did so five days later. On July 1, 1960, the two untied to become the Somali Republic. Adan Abdullah Osman Daar became the President and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke became the Prime Minister. Shermarke later became president. A new constitution was ratified on July 20, 1961. Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became the Prime Minister in 1967. He would later become the president of the autonomous Somaliland region.
After President Shermarke was assassinated in 1969, a military government took power led by Ge. Mohamed Siyad Barre, Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Jama Korshel. Barre became President and Korshel Vice-President. The military government implemented reforms and increased literacy rates.
A true military dictatorship began in 1976 when the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party was formed. It ruled the country until 1990 when it was overthrown by an armed revolt by the Somali Salvation Democratic Front, the United Somali Congress, the Somali National Movement, and the Somali Patriotic Movement along with other non-violent groups.
Somalia invaded Ethiopia in the Ogaden War in 1977. The war aimed to unite Somali lands that were partitioned by former colonial powers. The Soviet Union refused to support Somalia and assisted Ethiopia instead. Since the U.S.S.R. ultimately supplied both sides, it was able to broker a cease-fire.
By September 1977, Somalia occupied 90 percent of the Ogaden. After the Harar siege, the Soviets intervened on behalf of Ethiopia. This forced the Somalis to withdraw and seek U.S. help, which was eventually declined.
Somalis became weary of life under a military dictatorship. As the Cold War ended, Somalia’s strategic importance diminished. The increasingly totalitarian government and resistance movements encouraged by Ethiopia led to the Somali Civil War.

The Somali Civil War

Ethiopian backed clan forces ousted President Barre in 1991. After meeting with the Somali National Movement and clan elders, the northern part of the country declared independence as Somaliland in 1991. Despite being stable compared to the south, no foreign government has recognized Somaliland.
President Ali Mahdi Muhammad was selected as interim state president. Several other groups’ leaders refused to recognize Mahdi as interim president. This caused a split between the groups and led to efforts to remove Barre who still claimed the presidency. 
Agriculture and food distribution were disrupted in southern Somalia. Due to the violence and the humanitarian problems, the U.S. organized a military coalition to secure the southern region and allow humanitarian aid to be delivered. In December 1992, the task force entered the country and restored order. In 1993, most U.S. troops withdrew and were replaced by a U.N. force.
After casualties were inflicted on the forces, including 80 Pakistani troops and 19 Americans, the U.N. withdrew on March 3, 1995.